Mexico: Country Facts
Mexico, located in North America, is known for its rich cultural heritage, diverse landscapes, and vibrant traditions. Its capital and largest city is Mexico City. With a population exceeding 120 million, it covers an area of approximately 1.96 million square kilometers. Mexico’s history is marked by ancient civilizations such as the Aztec and Maya, Spanish colonization, and a struggle for independence. The country is renowned for its cuisine, music, art, and archaeological sites like Chichen Itza and Teotihuacan. Modern Mexico boasts a mixed economy, with industries ranging from agriculture and manufacturing to tourism and technology.
Pre-Columbian Civilizations (Before 1519 CE)
Early Settlements
Mexico’s history dates back thousands of years, with evidence of human habitation dating to the Paleolithic era. The Olmec civilization, established around 1500 BCE, is considered one of the earliest Mesoamerican cultures, known for its colossal stone heads.
Maya Civilization
The Maya civilization flourished in southern Mexico and Central America from around 2000 BCE to 900 CE. The Maya built impressive cities with towering pyramids, advanced astronomical knowledge, and a sophisticated writing system.
Teotihuacan and Toltecs
Teotihuacan, located near present-day Mexico City, was one of the largest and most influential cities in ancient Mexico, reaching its peak between 150 and 450 CE. The Toltecs, who succeeded the Teotihuacanos, established the city of Tula and exerted significant cultural influence in central Mexico.
Aztec Empire
The Aztec Empire, centered in the Valley of Mexico, emerged in the 14th century and became the dominant power in Mesoamerica by the 15th century. The Aztecs built the city of Tenochtitlan, now Mexico City, and created a complex society with advanced agriculture, trade, and architecture.
Spanish Conquest
In 1519, Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes arrived in Mexico and began the conquest of the Aztec Empire. Despite initial resistance, the Aztecs were defeated in 1521, leading to the colonization of Mexico by Spain.
Colonial Era (1519 – 1810)
Spanish Colonization
Spain established colonial rule over Mexico, known as New Spain, with Mexico City as its capital. The Spanish exploited Mexico’s resources, imposed Catholicism, and established a rigid caste system that marginalized indigenous and mestizo populations.
Encomienda System
The encomienda system, introduced by the Spanish, granted land and indigenous labor to Spanish colonists in exchange for tribute and conversion to Christianity. This system led to the exploitation and abuse of indigenous peoples, sparking resistance and rebellion.
Cultural Syncretism
Despite Spanish efforts to suppress indigenous culture, a process of cultural syncretism occurred, blending indigenous traditions with Spanish customs and Catholicism. This fusion gave rise to unique cultural expressions, including art, music, and religious practices.
Colonial Society
Colonial society in Mexico was stratified along racial and class lines, with Spanish elites at the top, followed by mestizos, indigenous peoples, and African slaves. Social hierarchies were reinforced by laws and institutions that favored the Spanish ruling class.
Mexican Independence
The struggle for Mexican independence was ignited by Father Miguel Hidalgo’s Grito de Dolores on September 16, 1810, calling for rebellion against Spanish rule. The movement gained momentum under leaders such as Jose Maria Morelos and culminated in the declaration of independence on September 27, 1821.
Independent Mexico (1810 – Present)
Early Republic (1821 – 1876)
Consolidation of Independence
Mexico faced political instability and external threats in the early years of independence, including territorial conflicts with Spain and the United States. The country struggled to establish stable governance and territorial integrity under leaders such as Agustin de Iturbide and Guadalupe Victoria.
Liberal Reforms
The mid-19th century saw the rise of liberal reformers such as Benito Juarez, who enacted progressive reforms aimed at secularizing society, limiting the power of the Catholic Church, and promoting land redistribution. These reforms sparked resistance from conservative forces and led to periods of civil strife.
French Intervention and Empire
In 1862, French forces invaded Mexico and installed Emperor Maximilian I, a puppet ruler supported by conservative elites. The French intervention was met with resistance from liberal forces led by Benito Juarez, who ultimately defeated the French and restored the republic in 1867.
Porfirian Era (1876 – 1911)
Porfirio Diaz’s Rule
Porfirio Diaz, a military general, seized power in 1876 and established a dictatorship known as the Porfiriato. Diaz implemented policies favoring foreign investment, industrialization, and modernization, leading to economic growth but also widespread inequality and social unrest.
Modernization and Inequality
The Porfiriato was characterized by rapid industrialization and infrastructure development, including the construction of railroads and telegraph lines. However, economic benefits were concentrated in the hands of a wealthy elite, while the majority of the population endured poverty and exploitation.
Mexican Revolution (1910 – 1920)
Causes of the Revolution
The Mexican Revolution erupted in 1910 in response to widespread discontent over Diaz’s authoritarian rule, economic inequality, landlessness, and corruption. Various revolutionary factions, including peasants, workers, and intellectuals, fought to overthrow the Porfirian regime.
Key Figures and Movements
Revolutionary leaders such as Francisco Madero, Emiliano Zapata, and Pancho Villa mobilized support for agrarian reform, social justice, and political change. The revolutionaries waged guerrilla warfare, seized control of territory, and engaged in battles against government forces and each other.
Constitutional Reforms
The Mexican Revolution culminated in the ousting of Porfirio Diaz in 1911 and the subsequent drafting of a new constitution in 1917. The Constitution of 1917 enshrined principles of land reform, labor rights, and social welfare, laying the foundation for modern Mexico.
Post-Revolutionary Period (1920 – 2000)
Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI)
The Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) emerged as the dominant political force in post-revolutionary Mexico, governing the country for much of the 20th century. The PRI implemented populist and nationalist policies, including land redistribution, education reform, and state-led industrialization.
Mexican Miracle
Mexico experienced a period of economic growth and political stability known as the “Mexican Miracle” in the mid-20th century. Government intervention in the economy, combined with oil revenues and foreign investment, fueled industrialization and urbanization.
Challenges and Crisis
Despite economic progress, Mexico faced challenges such as corruption, inequality, and authoritarianism under PRI rule. The government’s centralized control and suppression of dissent led to social unrest, political repression, and human rights abuses.
Democratization and NAFTA
In the late 20th century, Mexico transitioned to democracy, with free and fair elections ending PRI’s monopoly on power. The North American